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METIS - Serial Graph Partitioning and Fill-reducing Matrix Ordering | Karypis Lab

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Home » Research » Software » METIS

METIS - Serial Graph Partitioning and Fill-reducing Matrix Ordering

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METIS stable version: 5.1.0, 3/30/2013; MT-METIS version: 0.7.3, 6/4/2020

METIS is a set of serial programs for partitioning graphs, partitioning finite element meshes, and producing fill reducing orderings for sparse matrices. The algorithms implemented in METIS are based on the multilevel recursive-bisection, multilevel k-way, and multi-constraint partitioning schemes developed in our lab.

METIS's key features are the following:

Provides high quality partitions!

Experiments on a large number of graphs arising in various domains including finite element methods, linear programming, VLSI, and transportation show that METIS produces partitions that are consistently better than those produced by other widely used algorithms. The partitions produced by METIS are consistently 10% to 50% better than those produced by spectral partitioning algorithms.

It is extremely fast!

Experiments on a wide range of graphs has shown that METIS is one to two orders of magnitude faster than other widely used partitioning algorithms. Graphs with several millions of vertices can be partitioned in 256 parts in a few seconds on current generation workstations and PCs.

Produces low fill orderings!

The fill-reducing orderings produced by METIS are significantly better than those produced by other widely used algorithms including multiple minimum degree. For many classes of problems arising in scientific computations and linear programming, METIS is able to reduce the storage and computational requirements of sparse matrix factorization, by up to an order of magnitude. Moreover, unlike multiple minimum degree, the elimination trees produced by METIS are suitable for parallel direct factorization. Furthermore, METIS is able to compute these orderings very fast. Matrices with millions of rows can be reordered in just a few seconds on current generation workstations and PCs.

Note that if quality is of outmost importance to your application (whereas computationally efficiency is not as critical), I suggest you use the

hMETIS tool to compute the partitioning.

In this case, you just need to treat your graph as a (rather simple) hypergraph.

Survey (new)

Help us with the development of METIS 5.x by completing this

survey.

Forum

If you encounter any problems or have any "how to use" questions take a look at the community discussion

forums.

Bugs or Suggestions?

If you have any suggestions or you have found a bug please use the online bug & issue tracking system.

Active forum topics Error in function :ParMETIS_V3_PartGeom

Issue with ordering large-size graph with #define IDXTYPEWIDTH 64

Configuration paramters for optimal ordering

Partition a mesh with refinement history

Installing ParMETIS 4.0.2 does not install metis.h

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图划分软件Metis的使用 - 知乎

图划分软件Metis的使用 - 知乎首发于回廊识路的踩坑笔记切换模式写文章登录/注册图划分软件Metis的使用回廊识路“硬件的方向是物理，软件的结局是数学”Metis是由Karypis Lab开发的一个具有强大功能的图划分软件包，可用于划分不规则图(graph)、网格(mesh)以及计算稀疏矩阵(Sparse Matrices)的Fill-Reducing Orderings。它提供了一组可以独立运行的命令行程序，同时也提供API方便集成到C/C++或Fortran程序中。由于图划分问题np-hard性质带来的求解难度，Metis更新并不频繁（从1997年开始发布，最近一次更新是2013年3月，已经很是良心），其核心算法也不再是当前最优秀的，但并不妨碍它继续作为一个经典且稳定的第三方库在开源领域（如，国产开源CFD软件OneFLOW）中发挥重要作用。在我当前的研究课题中一个子问题涉及到图划分，使用Metis的C/C++接口成功求解了该问题。本文主要记录一下Metis软件包的简单使用过程，更多内容请参考Karypis Lab官网。0. 准备条件VS2017 / VS2019 CMake 3.181. 下载&安装参考Win10 VS安装METIS和使用METIS软件包进行图划分，这两篇博客文章已经介绍得很详细，按照步骤进行即可。有几点这里再强调一下：官方文件BUILD-Windows.txt中建议使用CMake 2.8，但CMake 2.8不支持vs2017，下载安装最新版本的CMake即可，建议使用Scoop安装。配置CMake编译选项时注意选择正确的编译器版本和机器位数，如本次实验中直接选择了vs2017 + release + x64。使用MSC编译器需要注释掉gk_arch.h文件中的一行代码，不要忘了。如果CMake配置的目标路径在C盘，可能需要使用管理员权限启动vs2017才能成功生成解决方案。2. 在新项目中添加依赖vs中引用第三方静态库永远都是关注两个文件(.h和.lib)、三个配置项：附加包含目录：.h文件所在的目录附加包含目录附加库目录：.lib文件所在的目录附加库目录附加依赖项：.lib文件附加依赖项具体可以参考一文梳理vs2017中lib的使用。建议：在新项目中建立Lib/目录，将用到的第三方库文件都复制到该目录，使用相对路径配置附加包含/库目录（如上述图中所示），避免使用绝对路径，这样可以方便项目在不同机器之间迁移和节约协同开发成本。如下图所示：使用相对路径配置依赖项3. Metis' API介绍安装完Metis后可以在manual/目录下找到说明文档manual.pdf，其中介绍了命令行程序(Programs)和API的使用方法。这里主要对用于图划分的两个接口METIS_PartGraphRecursive和METIS_PartGraphKway作简单说明。APIMetis提供了Recursive 和Kway 两种划分方式，分别基于multilevel recursive bisection 和multilevel k-way partitioning 实现。我们这里不关心其核心算法思路，仅关注其具体使用场景，下面这段话摘自官网的Discussions： "This function(METIS_PartGraphKway) should be used to partition a graph into a large number of partitions(greater than 8). If a small number of partitions is desired, the METIS_PartGraphRecursive should be used instead, as it produces somewhat better partitions."即求解划分子图数目较多时（官方建议划分8个以上子图）使用METIS_PartGraphKway，小规模划分使用METIS_PartGraphRecursive能获得质量更好的解，在后面的实验中也验证了这点。此外，重点关注以下几个参数（更多参数信息请参考文档manual.pdf）：nvtxs: 节点数目。 ncon: 节点权重维度，默认1。 xadj,adjncy: Metis使用压缩图(CSR)表示图的邻接关系，详情参考文档Metis' API/Graph data structure部分。 vwgt: 节点权重列表，设为NULL表示节点无权重或所有节点权重相同，相当于按照子图中节点的数目平衡划分。 adjwgt: 边的权重列表，默认优化目标为切断边的权重之和最小，设为NULL则表示按照切边数最小划分。 nparts: 要划分的子图数目。 objval: 目标函数值。 part: 保存划分结果。4. Demo注意：Demo使用了manual.pdf中的一个简单带权算例，怎样在VS中用C++调用METIS提供的API和使用METIS软件包进行图划分两篇博客文章中也使用了同样的算例。但通过我个人的学习与理解，认为他们在调用API时出现了明显的失误并已经在各自文章的评论区出指出了问题，如果我的理解有误，欢迎批评指正。算例图示及文件格式算例图示及文件格式代码#include

#include

using namespace std;

vector func(vector &xadj, vector &adjncy, vector &adjwgt, decltype(METIS_PartGraphKway) *METIS_PartGraphFunc) {

idx_t nVertices = xadj.size() - 1; // 节点数

idx_t nEdges = adjncy.size() / 2; // 边数

idx_t nWeights = 1; // 节点权重维数

idx_t nParts = 2; // 子图个数≥2

idx_t objval; // 目标函数值

vector part(nVertices, 0); // 划分结果

int ret = METIS_PartGraphFunc(&nVertices, &nWeights, xadj.data(), adjncy.data(),

NULL, NULL, adjwgt.data(), &nParts, NULL,

NULL, NULL, &objval, part.data());

if (ret != rstatus_et::METIS_OK) { cout << "METIS_ERROR" << endl; }

cout << "METIS_OK" << endl;

cout << "objval: " << objval << endl;

for (unsigned part_i = 0; part_i < part.size(); part_i++) {

cout << part_i + 1 << " " << part[part_i] << endl;

}

return part;

}

int main() {

ifstream ingraph("graph.txt");

int vexnum, edgenum;

string line;

getline(ingraph, line);

istringstream tmp(line);

tmp >> vexnum >> edgenum;

vector xadj(0);

vector adjncy(0); // 压缩图表示

vector adjwgt(0); // 边权重

idx_t a, w;

for (int i = 0; i < vexnum; i++) {

xadj.push_back(adjncy.size());

getline(ingraph, line);

istringstream tmp(line);

while (tmp >> a >> w) {

adjncy.push_back(a - 1); // 节点id从0开始

adjwgt.push_back(w);

}

xadj.push_back(adjncy.size());

ingraph.close();

vector part = func(xadj, adjncy, adjwgt, METIS_PartGraphRecursive);

//vector part = func(xadj, adjncy, adjwgt, METIS_PartGraphKway);

ofstream outpartition("partition.txt");

for (int i = 0; i < part.size(); i++) { outpartition << i + 1 << " " << part[i] << endl; }

outpartition.close();

return 0;

}

运行结果 METIS_PartGraphRecursive划分结果：METIS_PartGraphKway划分结果：可以看出，对于上述仅划分两个子图的情况，METIS_PartGraphRecursive要优于METIS_PartGraphKway；但在我的研究课题中，算例规模和子图数目稍大一些，经过测试使用METIS_PartGraphKway求解的质量更好。建议：在实际使用过程中，可能会由于算例规模的变化交替使用两种划分办法。由于这两个API参数与返回值形式完全一致，建议使用传递函数指针的方式区分调用，避免写出大量重复代码。Github项目实例均在vs2017/vs2019上测试，并上传至GitHub，将LearnMetis设为启动项目即可复现实验结果。Reference编辑于 2022-01-07 18:48运筹优化Microsoft Visual Studio 2017启发式算法赞同 3519 条评论分享喜欢收藏申请转载文章被以下专栏收录回廊识路的踩坑笔记大道至简，坚持

图分割Graph Partitioning技术总结 - 知乎

图分割Graph Partitioning技术总结 - 知乎切换模式写文章登录/注册图分割Graph Partitioning技术总结paradise新时代接班人1. 简介图分割是将一个大图均匀的分成一系列的子图去适应分布式应用，每个子图存储在一台机器上，子图之间可以并行化执行，如果当前子图需要其他子图的信息就需要通讯开销，而图分割的质量影响着每台机器存储代价和机器之间通讯代价。粗略地按照分割的内存开销大小分类，可以分为离线offline和流式streaming两类分割算法 [1]。offline是将整个图数据一次性载入内存中然后根据图的结构进行切分；streaming是按批次读取图数据，实时的将图的边或者结点分配到指定的子图中。对于大规模图数据来说，单机的内存无法满足分割算法的需求这个时候流式分割显得尤为重要。按照对图数据的切分方式分类，可以分为点分割（vertext partitioning or edge-cut partitioning）和边分割（edge partitioning or vertex-cut partitioning）。如图1所示，点分割是将图的结点分配到各个子图中，维持结点之间子图的完整性，这个时候可能造成某些结点之间的边被切掉(edge-cut)；同理边分割是将图的边分配到各个子图中，每组分配的边构成子图，这个时候造成某些结点的冗余（vertex-cut）。对于服从幂律分布power-law的图数据，某些结点的边可能特别多，如果执行点分割会造成大量边的缺失以及边的负载不均匀；而边分割可以处理这类问题。[2]图1 点分割（左）和边分割（右）的示例图分割的两个目标是负载均衡load balancing（减少存储代价）和最小化切边或点minimum cuts（减少通讯代价），同时优化这两个目标是平衡图分割（balanced graph partitioning）问题，这是一个NP难的问题[2]。通常情况下松弛为优化load balancing的同时尽可能保证minimum cuts。给定一个图 G=(V,E) 包含 |E| 条边和 |V| 个顶点，将它分割成 k 份，点分割表示如下：max_{i\in[1,k]}|V_i| \leq\frac{(1+\alpha)|V|}{k}\\ 其中 |V_i| 表示每份子图中结点的个数，表示了点load balancing，参数 \alpha 控制平衡率。边分割表示如下：\begin{equation} max_{i\in[1,k]}|E_i| \leq\frac{(1+\alpha)|E|}{k}\\ RF_v=\sum\nolimits^k_{i=1}\frac{V(E_i)}{|V|}\\ \end{equation} V(E_i) 表示子图中所有边 E_i 关联的结点集合， RF_v 表示结点的重复率replication factor，衡量vertex-cut的数量。下面我们按照切分方式来介绍系列分割算法。2. 点分割2.1 METISMETIS[3]是一种层次化的分割算法（multi-level partitioning），核心思想对于给定原图结构持续的稀疏化融合结点和边来降低原图的大小，然后达到一定程度对于缩减后的图结构进行分割，最后将分割后的小图还原成原始的图结构保证每份子图的均衡性。如图2所示，将一个图分割为3份，首先进行3层的稀疏化然后对于缩小后包含3个顶点的子图切分成3份，最后将这三个结点所包含的原始图结构还原成子图。METIS在稀疏化阶段采用heavy edge matching策略，在分割缩减后子图的时候随机初始化一个节点进行宽度优先遍历breadth-first fearch得到最小切边的子图，最后将子图映射到原始的图结构。由于METIS需要对整个图结构进行遍历和缩放，对于大规模图来说内存消耗大分割效率低。图2 层次化分割的三切分示意图2.2 Random Hash随机哈希的点分割就是将结点通过一个给定的哈希函数映射到不同的分割子图中， f(v)=hash(v)mod(k). 最简单的hash函数就是给每个结点分配不同的id，然后通过分割分数k进行取模，最后分配到指定的子图中。这种分割方法可以拓展到边分割上，将每条边进行id话然后取模进行分割。基于hash的分割方法不需要任何图结构的先验知识虽然高效但是随机化造成划分后子图内结点点的局部性很难得到维持，被切掉的边会非常多。2.3 LDGLinear Deterministic Greedy partitioning (LDG)[4]考虑在分割的时候将邻居结点放置在一起，以减少edge-cut。它采用贪心算法将一个结点放置在包含其邻居最多的子图中，同时保证每个子图的结点负载均衡，整个算法流程图如下：图3 LDG算法流程图其中 C=|V| 表示结点容量， w(i) 表示当前子图在平衡状态下剩余容量， g(v,P_i) 表示再考虑负载的情况下结点 v 和子图 P_i 中结点邻居个数的交集，该打分函数作为将结点 v 分配到最大分数的子图中。2.4 FennelFennel分割[5]与LDG相比，其打分函数对子图中结点数量的约束从乘法换成了减法操作，进行了松弛：图4 Fennel算法流程图3. 边分割3.1 NENE（neighbor expansion）[2]边分割其实也是考虑邻居的局部性进行切分，对于一个节点 x 如果期望他的所有邻居边都被分配到一个子图中，那么这个结点x作为核心集 C ，对于边界集 S 表示一个节点的部分邻居边被分配到了当前子图中，核心集 C 永远包含在 S 中。其核心思想如下，当 S \ C 为空，从 V \ C 中随机选取一个节点，否则选取结点的规则如下：x:=arg min_{v\in S}|N(v)-S|\\ 对于边界结点，从中选取一个其邻居在边界外最少的作为候选结点，能够保证分配邻居边的最大化，这样保证了最小化结点的重复率。选取候选节点后将其加入核心集，然后查找他的邻居，将不在候选集的邻居加入候选集；对于每个邻居继续查找他的邻居和候选集的交集，将这些有交集的邻居所关联的边加入当前子图，知道满足负载均衡，算法流程图如下：图5 NE算法该方法需要总览全局，提前计算每个结点的邻居集合，对于每次分配边都要动态改变核心集和候选集，以及边集。这对于大图来说内存消耗大。3.2 DBHDegree Based Hashing (DBH)[6]分割通过判断结点的度信息来切分结点分配边。对于幂律图来说低度结点的局部性很容易保持，高度结点因为关联太多结点如果将边全部分配在一个子图上不太可能，因此该算法尽最大可能保持低度结点的局部性。整个算法如下所示：图6 DBH算法对于一条边 e 的两个节点 v_1,v_2 ，计算这两个点的度信息也就是他的邻居总数，根据度小的结点计算哈希函数返回分配的子图id，将该条边分配到对应子图。该算法融合了度信息和随机哈希的特征，高效且保持了局部性。3.3 HDRFHDRF[7]和DBH类似，也是根据结点的度信息判断其关联的边分配到哪个子图中，只不过DBH是观察结点在全图中的邻居个数，而HDRF是观察结点在每个子图中部分邻居个数来决定分配。DBH希望将边直接分配到度小的结点所关联的子图上，而HDRF是观察所有子图的信息将边分配到其度最大的结点所在子图上，整个算法流程图如下：图7 HDRF算法根据图中6-8行可以看出HDRF的打分函数不仅关注结点的度信息还考虑了当前子图的负载均衡。4. 图分割的新进展4.1 GAPGAP（Generalizable Approximate Partitioning）[8]是一个基于图神经网络的点分割算法，框架图如下：图8 神经网络的框架图该网络结构利用邻接矩阵、结点特征、度信息作为组合输入图神经网络获得最终的结点特征，通过一个分类器判别属于哪一个分割子图，网络的损失函数考虑了edge-cut，最小化边割。4.2 聚类聚类其实和分割有一定的联系，分割的目标是让边或者结点均匀分配，且保证子图的局部性，子图间通讯开销最小化；聚类则是希望将图中相似语义和结构化信息的点聚集在一起，不考虑每个簇的结点数量，这相当于是松弛的点分割。4.3基于属性驱动的流式边分割算法考虑到目前的大规模图数据中结点都自带属性，对于这类属性图我们可以利用这些信息辅助分割，能够更好的服务下有节点分类、边预测等任务，同时考虑对大图的可扩展性我们提出了属性驱动的流式边分割，具体的算法将稍后公布。5. 图分割的实现对于有需求的同学，可以参考github连接实现的分割算法。目前包含上述涉及的分割方法，对于流式点分割LDG和Fennel由于精力有限没有优化，对于大图可能运行速度缓慢。另外KaHIP也实现了一系列基于层次化分割的算法。[1] I. Stanton and G. Kliot. Streaming graph partitioning for large distributed graphs. In Proceedings of the 18th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, KDD ’12, pages 1222–1230, New York, NY, USA, 2012. ACM.[2] C. Zhang, F. Wei, Q. Liu, Z. G. Tang, Z. Li, Graph edge partitioning via neighborhood heuristic, in: Proceedings of the 23rd ACM SIGKDD, 2017.[3] Karypis, G., Kumar, V. A fast and high quality multilevel scheme for partitioning irregular graphs. SIAM J. Sci. Comput. 20, 359–392 (1998)[4] I. Stanton and G. Kliot. Streaming graph partitioning for large distributed graphs. In Proceedings of the 18th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, KDD ’12, pages 1222–1230, New York, NY, USA, 2012. ACM.[5] C. Tsourakakis, C. Gkantsidis, B. Radunovic, and M. Vojnovic. Fennel: Streaming graph partitioning for massive scale graphs. In Proceedings of the 7th ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining, pages 333–342. ACM, 2014.[6] C. Xie, L. Yan, W.-J. Li, and Z. Zhang. Distributed power-law graph computing: Theoretical and empirical analysis. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, pages 1673–1681, 2014.[7] F. Petroni, L. Querzoni, K. Daudjee, S. Kamali, and G. Iacoboni. Hdrf: stream-based partitioning for power-law graphs. In Proceedings of the 24th ACM International on Conference on Information and Knowledge Management, pages 243–252. ACM, 2015.[8] Nazi, A., Hang, W., Goldie, A., Ravi, S. and Mirhoseini, A., 2019. Gap: Generalizable approximate graph partitioning framework.arXiv preprint arXiv:1903.00614.编辑于 2022-08-20 10:07图神经网络（GNN）分布式计算赞同 21517 条评论分享喜欢收藏申请

GitHub - KarypisLab/METIS: METIS - Serial Graph Partitioning and Fill-reducing Matrix Ordering

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墨提斯（古希腊神话中第一代智慧女神）_百度百科

古希腊神话中第一代智慧女神）_百度百科网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心墨提斯是一个多义词，请在下列义项上选择浏览（共3个义项）展开添加义项墨提斯播报讨论上传视频古希腊神话中第一代智慧女神收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10本词条缺少概述图，补充相关内容使词条更完整，还能快速升级，赶紧来编辑吧！墨提斯（美狄丝）（古希腊语：Μῆτις，英语：Metis），大洋神女之一，原始智慧 [1]女神，宙斯的第一位妻子；或墨勒斯的海洋神女。 [2]希腊神话中一般是指欧申纳斯（俄刻阿诺斯）和泰西斯的女儿 [3-4]，大洋神女，智慧与思想女神，雅典娜、波洛斯之母 [3]。赫西俄德称她是所有神和人中最为聪慧的、正义的策划者。有时也指墨勒斯的海洋神女 [5]。中文名墨提斯外文名Μῆτις别名神灵和凡人中最聪明的拉丁/英语Metis神话体系希腊神话司掌智慧、思想、诫言、水文、律师父母欧申纳斯（父）、泰西斯（母）配偶宙斯姐妹斯堤克斯等大洋神女兄弟阿刻罗俄斯等河神子女雅典娜（女）、波洛斯（子）目录1神祇介绍2史载3同名神女神祇介绍播报编辑墨提斯是古希腊神话中的第一代智慧女神，父为环绕世界的大洋神欧申纳斯，母为海之女神泰西斯。她在一些更古老的史诗中，常常出现于创世神话中，是希腊神话中智慧的本体。墨提斯的名字词源即是“智慧”之意。雅典娜、奥德修斯即被称为“polymetis”。 [6]在古典希腊时期的哲学里，墨提斯是代表广大的智慧与深思的母神。斯多葛学派记载墨提斯为明智的忠言女神，后继承为文艺复兴时的象征。史载播报编辑神谱在赫西俄德的《神谱》 [3]中墨提斯被称为神和人中最聪慧者，宙斯惧怕盖亚和乌拉诺斯的预言——她生下强于自己的儿子，遂听从盖亚的建议，用言辞哄骗墨提斯，将她含下，而此时她已经怀有雅典娜，后来宙斯吐出了雅典娜，而墨提斯却仍然留在宙斯肚中。这样，她就成为宙斯的思想和意志。神谱笺释笺释解读中，认为墨提斯作为大洋神女，跟她的父母大洋神和海之女神相同，具有主管预言和变化的神性。书藏这则神话在伪阿波罗多洛斯的《书藏》 [4]中描述得更为详细。克洛诺斯由于惧怕自己会被孩子们推翻，而在他们出生时就把他们吞进肚里，只有宙斯幸免。在宙斯长大后，他得到墨提斯的帮助，她给克洛诺斯吃下一种吐药（或酒），克洛诺斯因此把所吞的孩子吐了出来。在宙斯战胜了克洛诺斯之后，便开始追求墨提斯，而墨提斯曾变化种种形状避免他的追求。在她怀孕的时候，宙斯趁早把她吞下，因为盖亚曾预言，在她生下所怀的女儿之后将生下一个儿子，成为天国之王。由于惧怕这事的发生，所以宙斯把她吞进了肚里。等到产期时，赫淮斯托斯用斧子打开宙斯的头，于是雅典娜全身武装地从头颅里跳了出来，落在特里同的河畔。俄耳甫斯教传统在俄耳甫斯密教的传统中，法涅斯（Φάνης）——普洛托戈诺斯（Πρωτόγονος）——厄里刻派俄斯（Ἠρικεπαῖος）——墨提斯（Μῆτις）——狄俄倪索斯（Διόνυσος） [6]在柏拉图的《会饮》 [1]中，她是波洛斯（机遇，发明，美好）的母亲。同名神女播报编辑荷马认为她是迈翁的母亲，吕狄斯的墨勒斯河神的女儿。 [5]新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 Baidu 使用百度前必读 | 百科协议 | 隐私政策 | 百度百科合作平台 | 京ICP证030173号京公网安备110000020000

Métis | The Canadian Encyclopedia

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MLA 8TH EDITION

Gaudry, Adam. "Métis". The Canadian Encyclopedia, 28 November 2023, Historica Canada. www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/metis. Accessed 07 March 2024.

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APA 6TH EDITION

Gaudry, A. (2023). Métis. In The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/metis

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CHICAGO 17TH EDITION

Gaudry, Adam. "Métis." The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Article published January 07, 2009; Last Edited November 28, 2023.

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TURABIAN 8TH EDITION

The Canadian Encyclopedia, s.v. "Métis," by Adam Gaudry, Accessed March 07, 2024, https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/metis

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article

Métis

Article by

Adam Gaudry

Updated by

Mary Agnes Welch, David Gallant

Published Online

January 7, 2009

Last Edited

November 28, 2023

Métis are people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry, and one of the three recognized Aboriginal peoples in Canada. The use of the term Métis is complex

and contentious, and has different historical and contemporary meanings. The term is used to describe communities of mixed European and Indigenous descent across Canada, and a specific community of people — defined as the Métis Nation — which originated

largely in Western Canada and emerged as a political force in the 19th century, radiating outwards from the Red River Settlement (see Métis Are a People, Not a Historical Process and The “Other” Métis). While the Canadian government politically marginalized the Métis after 1885, they have since been recognized as an Aboriginal people with rights enshrined

in the Constitution of Canada and more clearly defined in a series of Supreme Court of Canada decisions.

Louis Riel, circa 1873.

(courtesy Provincial Archives of Manitoba/N-5733)

Definitions and Terminology

Editorial Note: In the interest of promoting a better understanding of the complex issue of Métis identity and how it is defined, The Canadian Encyclopedia has commissioned two opinion pieces exploring different perspectives on the topic. Métis Are a People, Not a Historical Process explores Métis identity from the perspective of Métis with ancestral ties to the Red River Settlement. The “Other” Métis explores Métis identity from the perspective of Métis who do not have ancestral ties to the Red River Settlement.

The use of the terms “Métis” and “métis” is complex and contentious. When capitalized, the term often describes people of the Métis Nation, who trace their origins to the Red River Valley

and the prairies beyond. The Métis National Council (MNC), the political organization that represents the Métis Nation, defined “Métis” in 2002 as: “a person who self-identifies as Métis, is distinct from other Aboriginal Peoples, is of historic Métis

Nation ancestry and who is accepted by the Métis Nation.” The MNC defines the Métis homeland as the three Prairie provinces and parts of Ontario,

British Columbia, the Northwest Territories and the northern United States. Members

of the Métis Nation have a common culture, ancestral language (Michif), history and political tradition, and are connected through an extensive network of kin relations.

The Congress of Aboriginal Peoples (CAP) has been critical of this definition of Métis, asserting that it excludes “many people who have legitimate claims

to Métis identity.” Despite CAP’s stance, the MNC’s position is the one that has generally been adopted by federal and provincial governments and the courts. For example, Métis Aboriginal rights defined in the Powley decision and section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 have only been applied to Métis communities west of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. While several lawsuits claiming

section 35 Métis rights have been brought before the courts by other communities, none have been successful. For example, R. v. Vatour in 2010 ruled against the notion of a Métis community in the Maritimes. Further, the implementation of these

rights defined by the Powley decision and by various provincial governments all fall within the MNC's definition of the "Métis Homeland, " which includes the Prairie provinces, and parts of Ontario, BC and the NWT.

Typically, when written with a small-m, métis refers to any community of European-Indigenous ancestry, including those in Ontario and Québec and non-status settlements near First

Nations reserves. It is often used to describe mixed-descent families and communities during the 18th and early 19th century Great Lakes fur trade,

although some scholars now avoid using the term.

Contemporary usage of Métis is also different from its historical meaning. At Red River in the 19th century there were two prominent communities of mixed-descent people. In addition to a sizeable French-speaking and nominally Catholic Métis population, there was a large group of English-speaking “Half-breeds” who were mainly Anglican agriculturists. While these interrelated communities can be considered to be distinct constituencies — even though the boundaries between them were quite

porous — the derogatory nature of the term “Half-breed” has caused it to fall largely into disuse. Thus, the contemporary meaning of “Métis” typically includes people of both French- and English-speaking heritage.

There are also Canadian legal definitions that further complicate Métis terminology. Section 35(2) of the Constitution Act, 1982 recognizes “ Indian,

Inuit and Métis peoples” as Aboriginal peoples under Canadian law, yet despite several Supreme Court of Canada decisions, Métis Aboriginal rights —

and who may possess these rights — remain, for the most part, undefined. However, in 2016, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in the Daniels case that the federal government has jurisdiction over Métis people, and that both members of the Métis Nation and Non-Status Indians are “Indians” as defined by the Constitution Act. The Court stopped short of clarifying the legal definition of Métis, but removed one barrier governments used for generations to avoid dealing with outstanding Métis issues.

Take the quiz!

Test your knowledge of Indigenous peoples by taking this quiz, offered by the Citizenship Challenge! A program of Historica Canada, the Citizenship Challenge invites

Canadians to test their national knowledge by taking a mock citizenship exam, as well as other themed quizzes.

Métis Communities in Canada

There are people of mixed ancestry throughout Canada. The earliest mixed Indigenous-European marriages can be traced to the earliest days of contact, yet whether these marriages resulted in distinct Métis communities has long been the subject of scholarly

debate. Some academics have argued that any mixed-descent person should be considered Métis. However, other scholars, along with the MNC, suggest that only those who were part of distinct Métis communities and used the term “Métis” in a self-referential

way, should be called Métis. “Labrador Métis” for example, have dropped Métis for this reason and instead prefer a term their ancestors used to define themselves: NunatuKavut. Scholars who defend the Red River definition of “Métis” argue that Métis identity

is not simply the result of a dual heritage, but rather a matter of possessing a singular cultural heritage of dual origins; someone of Cree and French Canadian descent would be considered Métis not solely by virtue of their mixed-descent, but whether they have Métis heritage that can be traced back to the Red River community.

Others have argued that such a narrow definition offers a limited understanding of Métis history. Communities in Ontario and Eastern Canada that have sought official recognition as Métis, for example, have expressed frustration at the popular notion that

a traceable ancestry to the Red River settlement is a necessary requirement to “authentically” identifying as Métis. They argue that mixed-descent families and communities have existed since the 18th and early 19th century Great Lakes fur trade,

before the establishment of the Red River Settlement. However, for many Red River Métis, the term is an important part of their specific history, heritage and identity, as enshrined by Canadian law. This remains an issue of heated debate among many métis

people in Canada. (See The "Other " Métis; Métis Are a People, Not a Historical Process).

Great Lakes Communities

The first small-m métis communities emerged during the Great Lakes fur trade in the 18th century. Great Lakes Indigenous diplomatic and economic protocols encouraged French fur

traders to establish family connections through marriage and ceremonial adoption with prominent Indigenous families in the region. Such unions with Indigenous women — referred to as marriages à la façon du pays, “according to the custom of the

country” — usually involved mutual commitments with local Indigenous kin and communities. French traders often lived out their lives with these families, whether formally employed at the forts or subsisting as gens libres (French and Métis freemen

who supplied the posts or served intermittently as guides, interpreters or voyageurs). Game, fish, wild rice and maple sugar furnished sustenance, supplemented by small-scale slash-and-burn agriculture. Over time small groups of mixed families situated

themselves in specific economic niches, with many rising to economic and social prominence throughout the Great Lakes region.

Scholarship has suggested that the application of the term “métis” to the Great Lakes region at this time is problematic since these mixed communities favoured terms like Saulteurs, bois brûlés (literally “burnt wood”), or chicots. While the term “métis” appears occasionally in contemporary writing, it was used predominantly by outsiders to make sense of a complex set of relationships between Indigenous communities and their relatives, not

necessarily by the Great Lakes “métis” themselves. Likewise, the term “Métis” did not make its way into common language at Red River until the early 19th century, several years after the decline of the Great Lakes fur trade and the mixed communities

it supported. Despite this distinction in terminology, the Métis of Red River and the métis of the Great Lakes were often connected through marriage and kinship practices.

The Western Métis

In 1816 Grant led the Métis to victory at Seven Oaks, an unplanned clash of Métis and Selkirk settlers (courtesy Public Archives of Manitoba/John Kerr Coll 127).

Paul Kane, 1846, watercolour on paper (courtesy Stark Foundation, Orange, Texas).

At the elbow of the North Saskatchewan River, September 1871, albumen print. The Red River cart was the primary means of transporting goods among the Métis traders (Library and Archives Canada/PA-138573).

PreviousNext

The success of the fur trade in the region that the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) called Rupert’s Land also relied on intermarriage. While the Company initially attempted to suppress these “country marriages,” the effectiveness of these unions in establishing trade networks, along with the successful use of intermarriage by the rival North West Company (NWC),

convinced the HBC to modify its policy. Initially, the children of these marriages lacked the distinct community and economic base upon which to build a separate identity. While some HBC officers' mixed children were educated in England, Scotland or

in the Canadas (see Upper and Lower Canada, later the Province of Canada),

and other families were left in the care of other HBC employees when senior officers returned to Europe, not all mixed-descent children faced difficult prospects. Many of these mixed-descent children remained in the North-West, living near one another

and developing a sense of themselves as a unique cultural and social community. This sense of self would eventually evolve into a sense of political commonality.

It was in the Red River region and on the prairies that the Métis began to make their mark on Canadian history. By 1810 they had established roles as buffalo hunters and

provisioners to the NWC. As NWC supply lines lengthened to Athabasca and beyond, the Red River heartland became crucial to the Montréal-based traders as a provisioning

centre. Accordingly, in 1811, Thomas Douglas, Earl of Selkirk, reached an agreement with the HBC to found the agricultural colony of Assiniboia for Scottish settlers with the ultimate goal of provisioning the HBC. The early Métis were allied with the Nor’Westers, and saw the colony as a direct threat to the NWC’s trade

and thus their own livelihood.

Nor'Wester William McGillivray admitted in a letter of 14 March 1818 that the Métis were linked to the NWC by occupation and kinship. “Yet,” he emphasized, “they one

and all look upon themselves as members of an independent tribe of natives, entitled to a property in the soil, to a flag of their own, and to protection from the British government.” Further, it was well proved “that the half-breeds under the denominations

of bois-brûlés and métifs have formed a separate and distinct tribe of Indians for a considerable time back.”

The early Red River Colony did not allay these fears, but rather antagonized the Métis and the NWC. Decrees from the governor of the colony forbade the export and sale of pemmican to

anyone but local HBC forts, and later banned hunting buffalo from horseback (see Pemmican Proclamation).

These were direct economic sanctions against Métis families who provisioned the NWC with pemmican made from buffalo meat (which had been hunted on horseback). After escalating raids on rival fur trade forts by HBC and NWC officers, many prominent Métis grew hostile to the Selkirk settlement’s leaders and, under the leadership of Cuthbert Grant, in 1815 decided to evict

the settlers from the region. In 1816, after Selkirk himself had decided to evict the Nor’Westers, the governor of the settlement, Robert Semple, confronted a group of Métis

soldiers at Seven Oaks. A battle broke out and the Métis soldiers killed Semple and several colonists. The event was memorialized in Pierre Falcon’s

“La Chanson de la Grenouillère.” (See also: Music of the Métis.)

The Battle of Seven Oaks resulted in an agreement between Cuthbert Grant and the Selkirk settlement’s interim leader, Peter Fidler. By 1821, any inter-company conflicts were

ended with the merger of the HBC and NWC. After the merger a number of traders were deemed redundant and many took up residence at the Red River Colony, which thus gained an increasing Métis presence. Company employees with Métis families lobbied for

the founding of a community where they could retire and have lands, livelihoods, schools, churches and other amenities. The HBC itself hoped to reduce costs by relocating dependent populations to a place where they could become self-supporting under

the Company's governance.

From 1821 to 1870, Red River's overwhelmingly mixed-descent population continued to reflect its dual origins: Montréal, the Great Lakes and Prairies, and the NWC; and Britain, the Scottish Orkney Islands (a major HBC recruiting ground) and Rupert's Land.

Some argue that these groups expressed mutual solidarity on the basis of their numerous intermarriages, business ties, shared involvements in the buffalo hunt, the HBC transport brigades and provisional government of 1869–70. A contrary view emphasizes

the split between Roman Catholic francophones and Protestant anglophones. Whatever their internal ties and tensions, the rapidly growing population in the Northwest was, by the 1830s, increasingly seen as a racial aggregate, as racially based interpretations

of human behaviour reigned in the 19th century. As such, Métis were often limited in their advancement through Company ranks.

While the HBC claimed to govern the population of Red River through the Company-appointed Council of Assiniboia, it governed more through influence than command. Throughout the 1840s and 1850s, Métis challenged the HBC trade and administrative monopoly

in Red River. In 1849 Métis disrupted the trial of free trader Pierre-Guillaume Sayer, effectively ending the HBC fur monopoly and ushering in an era of free trade. In the

mid-1850s, Métis petitioned the Imperial Government in London through Red River-born lawyer Alexander Kennedy Isbister to limit the Council of Assiniboia’s power.

On the ground, the Council rarely commanded enough of a constabulary to compel Métis to follow its laws, so the Council was often forced to compromise with the community to ensure the enforcement of its laws.

The Red River Provisional Government, 1869–70

Councillors of the Provisional Government of the Métis Nation, 1870.

Other events overshadowed Métis-Company disputes in the 1860s: the intensifying eastern interest in developing the West (heightened by Henry Y. Hind’s glowing report of

its agricultural potential); and Confederation in 1867. In 1869 the Dominion of Canada and the

HBC reached an agreement for the transfer of Rupert's Land to the Canadian government. Among Métis, however, questions arose on how the Company had gained ownership of the Northwest, when a multitude of “natives of the country” including the Métis and

their Cree, Saulteaux and Assiniboine relatives still possessed a claim to the territory as descendants

of the original inhabitants. Well aware of British plans to transfer their country to Canada, Métis leaders generally rejected the notion that a transfer was possible without the consent of the Indigenous peoples who lived there and strategized methods

of resistance at several public assemblies in 1869. The armed conflict that ensued is known as the Red River Resistance or Red River Rebellion.

The consequent efforts of government surveyors to map Red River without regard for local residents' holdings resulted in the establishment of the Métis National Committee, and a provisional government in late 1869. These events established Louis Riel as

the leader of the Métis resistance (see also: Louis Riel Timeline). After consolidating their alliance with the “Half-breed” population and the old British settler

population, the three constituencies formed the Provisional Government of Assiniboia’s Legislative Assembly in March 1870, and sent a delegation to Ottawa to negotiate Red River’s entrance into Confederation.

The outcome was the Manitoba Act, which established Manitoba as a new province in Confederation

as well as several other commitments to protect Métis landholdings (including a 1.4 million acre land reserve), language and local political control over the new province.

However, the agreement recorded by the Provisional Government’s chief negotiator varies in important ways from the Manitoba Act, and Métis leaders have argued since the 19th century that the original agreement has never been properly implemented.

The promised land reserve was never properly allotted; and when it was, it was granted piecemeal to individual families, taking well over a decade to be allocated. The settlers and troops who arrived in the new province after 1870 were generally hostile

to the Métis, many of whom were “beaten and outraged by a small but noisy section” of the newcomers, according to a report by the new governor, Adams Archibald.

Métis landholders were harassed, while new laws and amendments to the Manitoba Act undermined Métis power to fend off speculators and new settlers.

Of the approximately 10,000 persons of mixed descent in Manitoba in 1870, two-thirds or more are estimated to have departed in the following few years. While some went north and some went south to the United States, most headed west to the existing Métis

settlements around Fort Edmonton (Lac Ste Anne, St Albert and Lac La Biche) and to the South Saskatchewan River,

where they joined many Métis families already living at St Laurent, Batoche and Duck Lake.

The North-West Resistance

Louis Riel, circa 1873.

Gabriel Dumont was a man of great chivalry and military skill, superbly adapted to the presettlement prairie life (courtesy Glenbow Archives).

Lacombe used his trace of native blood to gain entry to the hearts of the Métis and native peoples in 1852 when he came west to serve them (courtesy PAA).

PreviousNext

As Saskatchewan Métis communities grew due to the Manitoba exodus, several sought to clarify their land titles with the Canadian government. The government ignored Métis concerns while negotiating major Indigenous treaties and

pre-empting land for railways. In deep frustration, the Saskatchewan Métis took up arms under Riel and Gabriel Dumont in

the North-West Resistance of 1885.

The Métis defeat at Batoche and the execution of Riel for treason set off a second dispersal, particularly to Alberta, and a renewed weakening of political influence and cohesiveness

(

see also: Battle of Batoche). Sir John A. Macdonald in

1885 articulated a view that would begin the process of denying Métis identity for the next century: “If they are Indians, they go with the tribe; if they are half-breeds they are whites.” Where Métis individuals did receive land allowances (or financial

equivalents), they usually were granted them in paper scrip — transferable certificates which unscrupulous speculators often pressured them to sell cheaply on the spot. The “scrip hunters” followed the Treaty No. 8 Half-Breed Commission in 1900 as it

made its awards to Métis in the Dene settlements, and bought up many $240 scrip certificates for cash amounts of $70 to $130.

From 1885 to the mid-1900s, poverty, demoralization and racism commonly connected to being identified as a “half-breed” led many Métis to deny or suppress that part of their heritage if they could. In 1896 Father Albert Lacombe,

concerned for Métis interests, founded St-Paul-des-Métis northeast of Edmonton on land furnished by the government. For financial and other reasons, the colony failed as a formal

entity by 1908, and settlers from Québec began to dominate the area. The multiple dispersals of Métis families across the west has led to the existence of Métis communities across

the Prairies, and into British Columbia and the Northwest Territories,

as well as the northern United States and northwestern Ontario.

20th Century Métis Activism

Despite the struggles of the 19th century, some developments after 1900 were more positive. In 1909, the Union nationale métisse St-Joseph de Manitoba, founded by former associates of Riel and others, began to retrieve (from Métis documents and memories)

their own history of the events of 1869–70 and 1885, resulting in A.H. de Trémaudan's classic work, Hold High Your Heads: History of the Métis Nation in Western Canada (1936). The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of new leaders — notably James Patrick (Jim) Brady and

Malcolm Norris — who, as Prairie socialist activists, built a new political and organizational base to defend their people's interests. Many Métis and non-Status

Indigenous peoples had been considered “squatters” (although they asserted title of their own to these lands) on Crown lands in Alberta. Threatened by a federal plan to place

these lands under provincial jurisdiction, Joseph Dion and others organized petitions and delegations to the Alberta government to seek land title for the Indigenous

peoples living there.

After Brady and Norris joined the movement in 1932, the first of several provincial organizations was founded — the Métis Association of Alberta, open to all persons of Indigenous ancestry. Its efforts led to the appointment of the Ewing Commission in

1934-36 to “make enquiry into the condition of the Half-breed population of Alberta.” The association eventually secured land for Métis settlements alongside the passage

of the Métis Population Betterment Act in 1938. That same year, the Saskatchewan Métis Society (later the Association of Métis and Non-Status Indians of Saskatchewan) was

founded and began to organize for the recognition and protection of Métis rights.

Métis Organizing and the Constitutional Era

In the late 1960s, Métis political activity intensified with the founding of numerous other organizations, such as the Manitoba Métis Federation, the Ontario Métis and Non-Status Indian Association, and the Louis Riel Métis Association of BC. These organizations

confronted such issues as the federal government's White Paper of 1969, and the on-going exclusion of Métis and Non-Status Indians from federal policy considerations.

In the 1970s, alongside their Non-Status Indian counterparts, Métis organizations were successful in developing programming that provided social, economic and educational supports

for Indigenous peoples. However, due to the federal policy that limited federal funding to Métis and Non-Status Indians, these groups dealt mostly with individual provinces, which in turn considered them to be a federal concern. Nonetheless, Métis and

Non-Status Indian organizations developed meaningful partnerships with provincial governments, which have, over the long term, produced an impressive array of social services still in existence today.

During the 1970s, Métis organizations were primarily concerned with social programming for Métis and Non-Status Indians, but during the lead-up to Canadian constitutional patriation,

Métis organizations, like their Indian and Inuit counterparts, were increasingly concerned about constitutional protection of their rights and title. During the patriation process,

Métis successfully lobbied for inclusion in what became Section 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982, protecting “the existing aboriginal and treaty rights” of Indigenous peoples, who were defined as “Indian, Inuit and Métis.” While Métis (and

other Aboriginal) rights and title remained undefined in constitutional practice, Métis did gain a constitutional protection from unjustifiable Canadian infringement

on their rights.

Before the constitutional recognition of Métis Aboriginal rights, Métis and Non-Status Indians had worked together out of common interest and necessity. With the Métis recognized as a distinct group in 1982, the alliance began to dissolve. From 1970 to

1983 the Native Council of Canada (NCC, now the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples) represented Métis interests on the national level. However, for the 1983

First Ministers Conference, the Métis National Council was formed to secure Métis representation as a distinct people independent of Non-Status Indians. The

First Ministers Conferences of the 1980s, meant to define Section 35 Aboriginal rights, were widely regarded as a failure, and the Métis/Non-Status split became more permanent. Métis organizations began to develop membership codes that reflected Métis-specific

membership, excluding many previous Non-Status Indian members. For example, to become a member of the Manitoba Métis Federation, a person must trace their genealogy back to the original Red River Settlement, typically using scrip, parish or census records.

The Courts: Métis Aboriginal Rights

As the recognized Métis “rights and title” of Section 35 were never defined during the First Ministers Conferences, the Métis initiated a series of lawsuits

in order for the courts to determine what these rights protected. Since Métis rights were constitutionalized in 1982, three major court decisions have started the long process of defining Métis Aboriginal rights in the Canadian constitutional system,

and have highlighted the complexities involved in defining Métis identity.

A transformative movement in Métis rights jurisprudence came in R. v. Powley in 2003. Two Métis hunters, Steve and Roddy Powley shot and killed a moose outside of Sault

Ste Marie and were charged with hunting without a licence and unlawful possession of game hunted in contravention of Ontario’s Game and Fish Act. In defence, they claimed that their rights as Métis allowed them to hunt in a manner consistent

with their Aboriginal rights, which predated Canadian assertion of sovereignty over their community. As a result, the Supreme Court established the three-part “Powley test” for determining who may claim Métis Aboriginal rights under section 35 of the constitution. A person must: a) self-identify as Métis; b) have an ancestral connection to a historic Métis community; and c) be accepted

by a contemporary community that exists in continuity with a historic rights-bearing community.

In 2013, the Supreme Court determined in MMF v. Canada that the government failed in its obligation to properly distribute and safeguard the 1.4 million acres set aside for the Métis in the Manitoba Act.

Since this victory, the Manitoba Métis Federation has been lobbying the federal government to enter into a land claims negotiation to compensate the Métis people for lost lands and resources, with the ultimate goal of securing a legally recognized land

base for Métis in Manitoba. On 15 November 2016, Indigenous Affairs Minister Carolyn Bennett and president of the Manitoba Métis Federation David Chartrand signed an agreement to bring an end to this 146-year land dispute. Parties must still negotiate

the financial settlement for the land as well as some other issues, but this is a step forward in settling the land claim.

Most recently, Daniels v. Canada offered transformative potential for Métis-Canada relations, ending the “jurisdictional wasteland” that stymied relations for generations.

In 2016, following a 17-year court battle launched by the late Métis leader Harry Daniels, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Métis and Non-Status Indians are considered “Indians” under federal jurisdiction as per Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867. This means that jurisdiction for Métis

relations falls to the federal government, rather than the provinces, as has been the common practice for decades. The decision could transform how Métis organizations function, where their funding comes from, the kind of services they are able to offer,

and their ability to demand consultation and compensation from the federal government.

Contemporary Life

Pierre Paquin, La Broquerie, Manitoba, 2 June 1956.

Woven by Carol James, a finger woven ceinture fléchée was traditionally worn by French Canadians and Métis in the 1800s.

PreviousNext

The blending of European and Indigenous traditions has created a unique and rich Métis culture. In traditional music and dance, Métis fiddling and jigging combine European and Indigenous influences (see Music of the Métis).

Métis fiddle music is generally up-tempo and is accompanied by the fast footwork of jiggers. Though there are many fiddle tunes and dances, the most well-known is the Red River Jig, which emerged in the early to mid-1700s. Today, the Métis people still

perform traditional music and dances at local and national competitions, community gatherings, powwows and conferences.

Métis art also reflects their unique heritage. Adopting Indigenous beading practices and popular European floral designs, the Métis created an art form all their own. Famous for their floral beadwork, the Métis are often referred to as the “Flower Beadwork

People.” Perhaps one of the most famous mainstream beadwork artists is Christi Belcourt, who has been awarded with many national and provincial honours for her work, including the Governor General's Innovation Award (2016), the Ontario Arts Council Aboriginal

Arts Award (2014) and Influential Women of Northern Ontario, Aboriginal Leadership Award (2014). The Métis are also well-known for their finger-woven, colourful sashes that have historical, practical and sentimental value.

Like Métis music and art, their language, Michif, is rooted in a mixture of Cree and/or Saulteaux ( Ojibwe)

verbs and French nouns. Historically, the Métis could speak various Indigenous languages and were often literate in French or English. Today, many Métis communities speak and teach Michif as a means of keeping the language alive.

A number of influential artists, athletes and politicians have promoted and preserved Métis culture, including writers Sandra Birdsell, Robert Boyer,

Maria Campbell and Katherena Vermette; architect Douglas Cardinal;

filmmakers, Tantoo Cardinal and Christine Welsh; Ontario Superior Court Justice Todd Ducharme; and professional hockey players René Bourque, Wade Redden, Sheldon Souray

and Arron Asham.

According to the 2021 Census completed by Statistics Canada, there are 624,220 people who self-identify as Métis in Canada. This represents a 6.3% increase in the Métis

population between 2016 and 2021. Of the 624,220 people who self-identify as Métis, 224,655 claim membership in a Métis organization or settlement.

Landmark Agreements on Métis Rights and Self-Government

On 27 June 2019, the Métis Nation of Alberta (MNA), Métis Nation of Ontario (MNO), and Métis Nation-Saskatchewan (MN-S) signed historic self-government agreements with the Government of Canada. The “Métis-Ottawa Accords” represent a landmark in Métis history, the first self-government agreements between the Métis Nation and the federal government. The historic signing took place in Ottawa between Crown-Indigenous Relations Minister Carolyn Bennett, MNA president Audrey Poitras, MNO president Margaret

Froh, and MN-S president Glen McCallum.

The agreements are the result of decades of struggle by the Métis people to gain recognition and self-government rights from the federal government. The 2019 accords represent

the greatest steps forward for Métis rights since the important hunting, recognition and self-identity rights gained in 2003 (see Powley Case) and 2016 (see Daniels Case). The 2019 accords will be followed by future negotiations that

will give the Métis Nation control over its own affairs in areas such as childcare, leadership selection, government operations, and citizenship. Most importantly, the accords give the Métis control over the creation of future constitutions for their

various nations.

Carolyn Bennett, speaking on behalf of the federal government, considers the accords the beginning of a new and better relationship between Canada and the three Métis nations involved: “What we’re signing today is a true acknowledgement of the Métis Nation

and the relationship we will have going forward — government to government. We’re here to sign not one, not two, but three historic self-government agreements and to recognize that you, the Métis, have control over your own governance.”

Métis Nation of Alberta president Audrey Poitras believes that the accords are a “dramatic shift in attitude for Canada” towards her people and a truly historic moment for the Métis: “It’s not an exaggeration to say the agreements signed today are something

we’ve been fighting for for close to a century. Finally, Canada has recognized our right to self-government.”

Selected Works of Indigenous Authors

Indigenous Perspectives Education Guide

Indigenous Peoples Collection

Métis Collection

Métis National Council

Métis

Indigenous Peoples

Louis Riel

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MÉTIS HISTORY

Métis Origins

Our Métis history may be old in our eyes, but it is very young compared to the rest of the world. Unfortunately, Métis history was not taught well in school, and was even hidden in some parts of Canada. It was not in always in shame; it was often the only mean to survive the genocide of the continent's indigenous peoples, especially during the dark years of the Deportation of the Acadians (Le Grand Dérangement) and the Red River Resistance.

In other parts of the country, especially during the last twenty years, Métis history was "re-written" to accommodate political agendas or groups claiming that the birth of the Metis "Nation" stems from the fur trade around Red River, Manitoba in the late 1700s and early 1800s. We offer solid evidence that the roots of Canada's Métis Nation are solidly anchored in eastern Canada. Every serious historian will tell you that our young French ancestors, who spent months at high seas and eventually settled in eastern Canada from the early 1600s onward, did not wait 175 years and the migration of the fur trade to western Canada to take an Indigenous wife and start a family!

Some peoples debate that being a mixed-blood, or half-breed does not constitute the right to call oneself Métis. Not only do we disagree wholeheartedly, but we consider such statements as racist and discriminatory. The word Métis is not native to the West, but was used by explorers and settlers, including Louis Riel to describe his fellow citizens of the Red River, as well as all other Métis peoples in Canada. The term Métis has its source in a Latin word meaning mixing, weaving. The adjective “métissé” was in fact used first in New France in the 17th century, but it had already taken the form of a noun in the early 18th century, as well as other names, such as mixed-blood, chicot, burnt-wood, Canayen, etc.

The study of the history of the Métis in the east and the west bring to light important differences, and some similarities, but it also shows an important commonalities and truths: a history of upheaval, challenges, and discrimination from sea to sea.

André Lasnier, first Métis born in Canada?

Although born in Canada in 1620, André Lasnier was baptised in France in 1632. According to the baptism record below, he was the son of Louis Lasnier and of a Canadian woman, was the first recorded child born of the union of a European man and an Indigenous woman in Canada. The child was twelve when he was baptized in France. The text below, borrowed from the Yarmouth Vandguard's website and the copy of the baptism record itself, confirms the existence of that Metis child, possibly the first recorded one in Canada.

Learn more about ANDRÉ LASNIER

INVITATION TO SERIOUS RESEARCHERS AND ACADEMICS

We invite historians, historical authors, and serious researchers to contribute their work to this page to help people understand who is Métis.

Contributors

1 - The Birth of a People: Martin Carrière

2- The First Metis People: Karole Dumont.

3- Canada's Western Métis: invitation to submit your research.

THE BIRTH OF A PEOPLE.

By: Martin Carrière, Nov. 2017

The indigenous tradition of marrying off their daughters and sons to gain military, trade and cultural advantages is the environment from which the first Metis peoples arose. From Champlain's overtures of alliance from 1608 onwards offering to make “one people” through the merger of the French with the Algonquin, Mi'kmaq and Iroquoian speaking nations, the formal sanction for the emergence of the Metis was set.

The mutual adoptions and exchanges of warriors following battles through to the forming of the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701, with close to 100 nations agreeing to all live peacefully together with the French speaking allies, brought the Metis firmly into existence. Living with the old nations from birth, the new families of Metis learned all their indigenous families’ languages, traditions, and ways of surviving. The Bois Brulés, Coureurs des bois, Voyageurs, and merchants brought great wealth and losses in different forms to the old nations and to the Europeans. The old nations gained some military advantages, yet lost more through the introduction of European diseases and the ongoing feudal wars. Other wars, primarily between the English and the French, included all the nations of the old world, and were for control of the territories of the old nations. The Europeans gained much needed settlement lands and tax revenue, yet lost control of the Dream of “one people” as the old ways of racism and prejudice encouraged the Metis to continue to live free and strong.

Being born with genetic diversity and resilience to European diseases, the Metis families flourished and spread with the expansion of the trade from the east, to the south, to the north and to the west. Walking hand in hand more with the Cree, Chippewa, Assiniboine and other allied families, the Metis continued to strengthen their family ties to become the largest indigenous merchant family in North America. Through the loss of French control over the trade in 1763, the Michif speaking Metis merged with the French speaking British founders of the North West Company to control the majority of the trade in North America over the next three generations. In 1810, the Royal Society reported to the English Crown that the Metis were resistant to European diseases and were more able to compete against the less acclimatized Europeans, so the removing of the Metis as a threat to European settlement became the primary policy of the English hierarchy.

From the forming of the American states to the sale of Louisiana through to the war of 1812 and after, the expulsions of Metis and our allied families from the east and south as English and American law displaced thousands from their homes, their inheritances and their territories, created a permanent unrest and resistance within the Metis against further insult and degradation.

With close to 500 Metis enlisted in the Canadian militia to defend the trade territories in Canada during the war of 1812 the British and Americans witnessed the Metis combat skills first hand. During the war, the Metis also supplied a good portion of the annual harvest of Pemmican to feed the British and Canadian military. The theft by the British HBC of the Metis harvest of pemmican in 1813 showed the complicity of the purveyors of English law and the urgent need for the Metis from the east to the west to step forward to defend against any further depredations and to protect all Metis. From the military-trained Metis from across the country, three Metis regiments were created and funded by the NWC to protect the essential national trade routes and depots of lake Athabasca, the forks of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, and the areas around Thunder Bay and Sault Ste Marie. The infinity symbol of the Metis flag first flown at that time represents the unity and strength for all Metis, from all the combined Metis families, to persevere by standing strong together to protect all Metis, in whatever territory they are in.

The Metis traditions of growing gardens around their homes, actively hunting, fishing and engaging in the trade and other endeavours while generously sharing with their community and family still continues today. Trading in pemmican, furs, horses, sashes, bead-work, quill-work, and limitless trade goods the Metis families would travel extensively and meet by the thousands annually at rendezvous gatherings in various locations across the continent. Learning the connection to the land from our indigenous grandmothers and grandfathers, and the inherent responsibilities, all Metis have to keep the circle of life sacred, is who the Metis really are. That connection is what many believe to be what sets the Metis apart from their European cousins, who have forgotten the respect and sacred bond all people hold to the earth and to all of Creation. The uniting of the Metis families to protect the land, resources and way of life is part of the defense the Metis families have waged continually against the predatory mindset of the European-based systems that do not have any conscience about the destructiveness they bring about. Losing their homes and rights to inherit land and property with the advent of English law from the mid 1700's to 1806 onwards, in Upper and Lower Canada, and the strong influx of new settlers, pushed many Metis to obtain English-based title to the land to protect themselves and build their homes onto it while they were engaged in the trade economy in the west. Many of these Metis still had homes and extensive family in the East.

Mixing with the English-speaking populations was not an easy road and much discontent ensued. The challenge of the British North-America Act-based Canadian push to again disregard the Metis inherent right to land, law and liberty in 1869 and 1870 saw the Metis flag again used to defend the Metis and other indigenous people against persecution that resulted in the forming of the province of Manitoba. This battle was a means to entrench and protect the inherent rights to language, culture and traditions of the Metis and their cousin nations.

Fighting the cultural arrogance of the European mindset as the Metis did in 1870 is what inspired their cousin nations of Cree, Dakota, Assiniboine and others to stand with the Metis during the “Defense of the West”, or the “Northwest Rebellion” in 1885. After watching the destruction of the buffalo herds, the continued desecration of sacred monuments and territories and the imprisonment and death of so many families all indigenous nations knew their way of life in living in sacred harmony with the earth was being destroyed. Losing that battle in 1885 may well have made the Metis fall asleep for 100 years, yet the real war has never stopped.

The responsibility and accountability the Metis hold to all their cousin nations from the east to the west is the real inheritance of the Metis. Standing tall together with all their cousin nations, in all the shared and sacred territories across this land, to defend the earth and all of Creation against the ongoing destruction is the real awakening of the Metis. Uniting all their families, whether they are from known Metis families, or from families who hold full nation status, or families who are non status, or families who are just rediscovering their roots within the Metis, and who want to stand strong with the Metis together is the beginning of the reconnecting of the full Metis family.

THE FIRST MÉTIS PEOPLE

By: K. Dumont – 10/2017

The first Métis People emerged in eastern Canada in the early 1600s with the arrival of European explorers and their unions with Indigenous women. One of the earliest Metis baptisms found was for André Lasnier, born in 1620 in Port Latour, Nova Scotia, but baptized in France in 1632.

The primary commerce was fishing, but the fur trade quickly claimed its place in New France’s economic development. Some of the original Metis communities were rooted in La Have, Port Royal, Cap Sable, Trois-Rivières, Québec and Montréal, where they developed a unique identity, history, culture, and in some cases their unique language. The various conflicts and wars between the French, the British, and the First nations caused havoc among the colonies, the Metis, and the First Nations. The 1755-1763 deportation of the Acadians, many of whom were Metis, is a somber period in our history that is poorly taught in our schools. Shortly after that genocide wave, the near extinction of fur-bearing animals in eastern Canada pushed the fur trade westward, opening new routes and settling new Metis communities along the way.

Those who remained in the east faced more military conflicts that forced some families and communities to “hide in plain sight”. The French-Indian wars (1754-1763), the American Revolution (1775-1783), the War of 1812 (1812-1815), and the Patriots rebellions (1837-1838) were but a few of the numerous conflicts that reshaped Canada’s landscape before Confederation. By that time, very few eastern Metis – if any - dared to stand up in a crowd and declare “I am Metis” or brandish anything resembling a Metis flag. It was a question of survival! One can only imagine the grief and fear our ancestors faced as more settlers received the land they once roamed upon freely. One can only imagine their feelings of despair in the face of subjugation, and their powerlessness to maintain their true identity.

It took a few centuries for the tumultuous waters to settle into some sense of acceptance, and for the Metis to act upon a profound desire to reconnect to their hidden heritage. Today, the Canadian Metis Nation has evolved in cultural diversity, not unlike the First Nations who, while being an Aboriginal People, have different Nations, different cultures, traditions, languages and beliefs. There is no such thing as a “one size fit all” Metis, no more than there is “one size fit all” First Nations, but the one thing all Metis peoples share is pride in their identity, their ancestors, and their history.

THE MÉTIS OF WESTERN CANADA

There is so much work on Métis in Western Canada that we invite our visitors to submit their own research or analysis, or the work of other researchers - with permission of course

Literature

The following section offers published work from various authors, all available on the internet. **Note: Finding these works on our site does not mean that the CFMPC agrees with all the authors. This list encourages awareness and awakening to our history. Unfortunately, not all resources are available in English and French.

NOTE: Please contact us to obtain a copy.

The indefensible in-betweenness or the spatio-legal arbitrariness of the Métis fact in Quebec (Étienne Rivard, 2017)

An Ethnographic Report on the Acadian-Métis 2018 (Christian Boudreau)

Comission D'enquete Viens

Communautés mixtes Cote Nord A-2018-00145

Du Dunn Martin - The Other Metis A201701143_ nn Martin - The Other Metis A201701143_

Ethnogenèse Des Premiers Métis Canadiens, Denis Jean

Displaced Mixed-Blood: An Ethnographic Exploration of Metis Identities in Nova Scotia (Katie K. MacLeod)

Entretien avec John Ralston Saul : L'Acadie Métis, Chapados, Emmanuelle . L'Étoile Shediac ; Richibucto, N.B. [Richibucto, N.B]23 Apr 2009: C.10.

Les familles pionnières de la Nouvelle-France, Jean-Paul Macouin

Les Inuit du Labrador 1850s, Paul Charest

Métis Environmental Knowledge, Carol Leclair

Métis Perspectives - The other Metis, Martin Dunn

Métis-Acadien, Gerald Vizenor

Métissage in New France, Devrin Karahasan

Bonds Of Money, Bonds Of Matrimony?:French And Native Intermarriage In 17th & 18th Century Nouvelle France And Senegal, Eugene Richard Henry Tesdahl

The Other Metis, Martin Dunn

Negotiating an Identity: Metis Political Organizations, the Canadian Government, and Competing Concepts of Aboriginality, Joe Sawchuk

Prairie and Quebec Metis territoriality , Etienne Rivard

The French Relationship with the Native Peoples of New France and Acadia, INAC

Les relations franco-amérindiennes en Nouvelle-France et Acadie, AANDC

Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples

Ni Amérindiens ni Eurocanadiens. Une approche néomoderne du culturalisme métis au Canada, Emmanuel Michaux

La Mouvance Métisse au Québec : Vouloir Être ou Ne Pas Être Métis, Mémoire présenté comme exigence partielle de la Maîtrise en Science Politique, Simon Villeneuve

Metis Acadian Heritage 1604-2004, Roland Surette

The Metis in Southwestern, Nova Scotia, William Wicken.

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